How did he die?
Outside sourcesNew Testament · as historical sources
Ring 2Jesus was crucified under Pontius Pilate.
Scholarly consensusNearly all scholars
This is judged the most certain fact of Jesus’ life. Even John Dominic Crossan, a scholar critical of traditional Christian belief, counts the crucifixion as certain as any fact of history can be.
- Non-ChristianTacitus writes that Pilate executed him (Annals 15.44), and Josephus that Pilate sentenced him to the cross (Antiquities 18.63–64).
- ChristianAll four Gospels and Paul’s letters take the execution for granted.
- EmbarrassmentThe cross was the most shameful death of its day. People who set out to proclaim a Messiah had no reason to invent it (1 Corinthians 1:23).
ObjectionDid Jesus not die, or did someone else die in his place?
Qur’an 4:157 says that Jesus did not die on the cross, but this is a theological statement made six hundred years later. The first-century sources all take the execution for granted. And a Roman soldier’s task at an execution lasted until death was confirmed.